Photo sourced from: http://legacyfoodstorage.com/project/macaroni-and-cheese/
Industry status and potential
Macaroni In 2011, with 6,816 tonnes earning $1,477/tonne, macaroni was Nepal’s fifth most profitable export[i]. The Nepalese macaroni industry is well-developed and thus, this article will focus on Yakmac cheese. Dairy Yak products are currently neglected by the Nepalese dairy industry: only seven of 250 Nepalese dairies process yak milk[ii]. Due to the remoteness of yak habitat, production is neither organized nor incentivized[iii]. Yaks thrive in the alpine region of the Himalayas[iv]. They are key to the survival of indigenous groups, providing milk, meat, wool, hide, draught labour, and fertilizer. Herdsmen migrate between 3000-4000 m in the winter and 4000-5000 m in the summer[v]. Milk processing facilities are located at lower altitudes and require delivery[vi]. Thus, they are inaccessible to many highland farmers. |
Breeding
Relatively low fertility and productivity limit the yak industry[xiii]. Training farmers in breeding techniques would improve fertility rates and trait selection. Higher milk yield, better niche-response, animal hardiness, and a widened geographical range would boost productivity and increase the accessibility of the Yakmac industry. For example, Chauri, a cow-yak cross-breed, demonstrates heterosis. It thrives in a wider geographical range, matures twelve months earlier than yaks, calves more frequently, and lactates longer, producing approximately four times more milk than purebred yaks or cows[xiv],[xv]. Required inputs Sustainable commercialization of Chhurpi production necessitates updated technologies, farmers training regarding hygienic standards (more under “Export Potential”), feed and fuel resource management (more under “Environmental analysis”), and veterinary services. Lack of veterinarians is a major problem in the highlands[xvi]. Basic training for farmers, plus availability of professional services, would facilitate the Yakmac industry. |
Industry opportunities
Indigenous groups in Nepal have processed yak milk at the farm-level for millennia[vii]. Chhurpi, a popular cheese-like product, is made by boiling yak milk in an aluminum kettle over a wood-fueled fire to precipitate casein, the primary protein[viii]. It is dried and hardened, extending shelf life up to months[ix]. Casein is used in processed foods. Already partially dehydrated and concentrated, this product could easily be converted into Yakmac cheese powder. An informal Chhurpi market exists between farmers and travelling traders[x]. Formalizing and incentivizing this market would benefit farmers, traders, and the Yakmac industry alike. Chhurpi, a value-added product, boosts farmer income. Yield is approximately 4.5%, meaning that 100 L raw milk produces approximately 4.5 kg Chhurpi. In 2013, Nepalese market prices for Chhurpi were $12-$17 USD/kg (x4.5 kg = $54-$76.5) whereas raw milk prices were $0.25-$0.32 USD/L (x100 L = $25-$32)[xi]. Partial preservation enables accumulation, making daily collection less crucial and thus empowering smallholder farmers, with low daily production, to participate in the industry. Finally, as a solid, Chhurpi is easily transported and is less susceptible than raw milk to in-transit contamination[xii]. |
Sustainability analysis
Economics
Yaks are a symbol of affluence and provide a form of insurance for farmers living at the limits of arable cropland[xvii]. Yak product sales are often the sole source of cash in highland communities[xviii]. Yakmac would improve economy stability by establishing steady demand.
For poor farmers looking to enter the industry, initial herd acquisition may be unfeasible. Furthermore, a household labour shortage may make herd maintenance unmanageable, particularly if balancing Chhurpi processing with crop production[xix]. Such problems could be mitigated through an agricultural cooperative. By pooling resources, communities can maximize productivity, ensure subsistence, and minimize risks for individual farmers.
The most significant economic aspect of Yakmac is that it is a processed product, rather than a commodity. Value-addition for agricultural products is incredibly important for economic sustainability[xx].
Environment
There are many ecological benefits to livestock ownership[xxi]. In the past, however, incentivized dairy production has led to overgrazing and deforestation in Nepal[xxii],[xxiii]. For sustainable Yakmac production, these issues must be addressed proactively.
A system of intensive rotational grazing maximizes fodder use while minimizing land degradation[xxiv]. Rotating cropland and pastureland would improve the quality shallow, infertile soils in the highlands[xxv]. Forage growth and manure deposition improve soil stability, break pest and disease cycles, increase organic matter, and boost fertility[xxvi],[xxvii]. Furthermore, the natural distribution of manure fertilizer reduces labour requirements.
To mitigate deforestation, cooperatives and production facilities could explore alternative renewable energy, particular hydro-electricity. Nepal has vast untapped hydro-electric potential[xxviii].
The commercialization of production, however, can raise biodiversity concerns. A demand for uniformity can reduce genetic diversity associated with landraces. This would restrict, rather than expand, the geographical niches of yaks and would increase capacity for disease[xxix]. Overall, reduced genetic diversity would decrease system resilience and escalate industry risks. With the centralization of final processing and Yakmac packaging, however, individual variation in Chhurpi may be insignificant. The process of converting Chhurpi into powder form would enable mixing.
Socio-cultural aspects
The yak industry, like many livestock industries, is dominated by men. Women typically tend crops and care for children[xxx]. In order to expand opportunities for women in the livestock industry, targeted support is crucial[xxxi]. This could include training, financial and resource capital, as well as organizational support for cooperatives.
Nepal largely encompasses Hindu values, including reverence for cows. Since they cannot be killed, cows and cow-yak hybrids that are no longer productive become a liability[xxxii]. Yaks, however, are a separate species, thus providing an alternative that circumvents this constraint. Furthermore, yaks have become central to rituals, ceremonies, and legends among highland farmers[xxxiii],[xxxiv]. The commercialization of Yakmac would draw international attention to this indigenous animal and the traditional lifestyle that accompanies it. As a result, this product would encourage highland farmers to take pride in their culture and livelihood.
Economics
Yaks are a symbol of affluence and provide a form of insurance for farmers living at the limits of arable cropland[xvii]. Yak product sales are often the sole source of cash in highland communities[xviii]. Yakmac would improve economy stability by establishing steady demand.
For poor farmers looking to enter the industry, initial herd acquisition may be unfeasible. Furthermore, a household labour shortage may make herd maintenance unmanageable, particularly if balancing Chhurpi processing with crop production[xix]. Such problems could be mitigated through an agricultural cooperative. By pooling resources, communities can maximize productivity, ensure subsistence, and minimize risks for individual farmers.
The most significant economic aspect of Yakmac is that it is a processed product, rather than a commodity. Value-addition for agricultural products is incredibly important for economic sustainability[xx].
Environment
There are many ecological benefits to livestock ownership[xxi]. In the past, however, incentivized dairy production has led to overgrazing and deforestation in Nepal[xxii],[xxiii]. For sustainable Yakmac production, these issues must be addressed proactively.
A system of intensive rotational grazing maximizes fodder use while minimizing land degradation[xxiv]. Rotating cropland and pastureland would improve the quality shallow, infertile soils in the highlands[xxv]. Forage growth and manure deposition improve soil stability, break pest and disease cycles, increase organic matter, and boost fertility[xxvi],[xxvii]. Furthermore, the natural distribution of manure fertilizer reduces labour requirements.
To mitigate deforestation, cooperatives and production facilities could explore alternative renewable energy, particular hydro-electricity. Nepal has vast untapped hydro-electric potential[xxviii].
The commercialization of production, however, can raise biodiversity concerns. A demand for uniformity can reduce genetic diversity associated with landraces. This would restrict, rather than expand, the geographical niches of yaks and would increase capacity for disease[xxix]. Overall, reduced genetic diversity would decrease system resilience and escalate industry risks. With the centralization of final processing and Yakmac packaging, however, individual variation in Chhurpi may be insignificant. The process of converting Chhurpi into powder form would enable mixing.
Socio-cultural aspects
The yak industry, like many livestock industries, is dominated by men. Women typically tend crops and care for children[xxx]. In order to expand opportunities for women in the livestock industry, targeted support is crucial[xxxi]. This could include training, financial and resource capital, as well as organizational support for cooperatives.
Nepal largely encompasses Hindu values, including reverence for cows. Since they cannot be killed, cows and cow-yak hybrids that are no longer productive become a liability[xxxii]. Yaks, however, are a separate species, thus providing an alternative that circumvents this constraint. Furthermore, yaks have become central to rituals, ceremonies, and legends among highland farmers[xxxiii],[xxxiv]. The commercialization of Yakmac would draw international attention to this indigenous animal and the traditional lifestyle that accompanies it. As a result, this product would encourage highland farmers to take pride in their culture and livelihood.
Potential support
Nepal: Department of Cooperatives[xxxv] offers registration, recommendations, and promotion of domestic cooperatives
Nepal: Department of Food Technology and Quality Control[xxxvi] supports entrepreneurship in food-related initiatives
Nepal: Department of Livestock Services[xxxvii] strives to reduce poverty through sustainable livestock initiatives
World Bank: Project for Agriculture Commercialization and Trade[xxxviii] provides financial support to for agricultural initiatives, focussed on commercialization, trade, and sustainability. Available until June 30, 2018.
Nepal: Department of Cooperatives[xxxv] offers registration, recommendations, and promotion of domestic cooperatives
Nepal: Department of Food Technology and Quality Control[xxxvi] supports entrepreneurship in food-related initiatives
Nepal: Department of Livestock Services[xxxvii] strives to reduce poverty through sustainable livestock initiatives
World Bank: Project for Agriculture Commercialization and Trade[xxxviii] provides financial support to for agricultural initiatives, focussed on commercialization, trade, and sustainability. Available until June 30, 2018.
Written by Sara Wyngaarden
Last updated December 17, 2014
Last updated December 17, 2014